Science of Epidemiology

Science of Epidemiology Edward Truelove EPIDEMIOLOGY Introduction This assignment will identify and explain what epidemiology is and describe how epidemiologists collect and analyse specific data. It will then identify a number of aspects of the science and then look a disease and see how epidemiologists data was used to influence health promotion. What is Epidemiology? Epidemiology is the ‘science concerned with the study of the factors determining and influencing the frequency and distribution of disease, injury, and other health-related events and their causes in a defined human population. Also, the sum of knowledge gained in such a study. There are two main types of Epidemiology. The first one is descriptive which describes the occurrence of the disease according to people, place and time and the second is analytic which determines the causation, risk factors for health, disease and association. Descriptive epidemiology describes and investigates the scale of the problem. This is the amount of people that have developed or caught the disease over a specified period. e.g. in 2004 there were 44,659 cases of newly diagnosed breast cancer in the UK. From this epidemiologists would look at the prevalence, the number of people that have the disease or condition at any particular time. e.g. the number of people who are regular smokers within a specified time period. The next factor is to look at how the condition is spread. This is done by analysing categories such as age, gender, socioeconomic class and ethnicity e.g. women from lower social classes are much more likely to smoke than women in higher social classes. Examples of questions asked to collect this data are as follows: What are the health problems? How many people are affected? Who is affected? Which communities are affected and why? What are the trends? Answers to these questions can indicate if primary prevention is possible and it can show the seriousness of the problem and how individuals and communities may be affected. Analytical epidemiology aims to answer the question, why did it happen? This is done by identifying and determining the causes and risk factors for health and disease. Comparisons have to be made between groups with or without the disease and between groups exposed and not exposed to a possible causal factor. Causation can show if there is a link from a certain disease to environmental influences, lifestyle or socioeconomic factors. To find the cause, epidemiologists can use inferential statistics to draw inferences about apopulationfrom arandom sample. From analysing the results and assessing the risks, a link between events and contributory factors can be draw and this can vary from negligible to high. Assessing the needs and analysing the data The first step in planning health promotion is to assess the needs and this consists of two elements. Firstly are the health service needs, which are determined from health data such as occurrence, frequency, mortality and morbidity. Secondly is the community determined needs covering issues that individuals and communities have brought to the attention of the local authority, politicians and letters etc. Sometimes these two elements overlap but it is important to identify which are priorities for communities. Health data is analysed according to who has been affected and this shows which communities are affected the most so that resources can be allocated. From this information about prevention begin. Prevention Primary prevention consists of trying to keep people healthy and free from disease such as immunization and encouragement of healthy lifestyles. Secondary prevention tries to identify the disease and persuade people to go for treatment at the earliest opportunity. Examples could be a cough that could lead to tuberculosis or a fever that could lead to influenza. In some conditions once the disease has developed it can often be too late, so one of the key roles of health promotion is to encourage screening i.e. breast cancer. Tertiary prevention involves actions if the disease has become very serious. This is to promote recovery and focus on rehabilitation to help speed the recovery. An example of primary prevention would be lung cancer as it is know what causes it, but it is not suitable for breast cancer as the causes are not yet known. Prevention can only take place if the causes can be established. Causes Epidemiologists need to establish causes and to look at many factors such as the environment, society and individuals. They also need to find out what causes the cause as there can be a whole chain of causal factors triggering a chain of events. These study designs are used for finding out possible causes, although they do not prove causal relationships as they just look at associations. There are two types of analytical study designs. The first is group one which are used for finding out possible causes. Ecological studies compare studies of a particular disease in different communities to try to ascertain the cause. Cross-sectional studies sample a section of society at one particular time to see if there are common characteristics between people. Case control studies compare a sample of people with a disease to a sample without and a conclusion can be drawn to see if characteristics are more likely to be found in people with the disease. Group two analytical studies are stronger design studies which are used to provide evidence for causal relationships. Cohort studies, also known as prospective or longitudinal studies are when a large sample of the population is followed over a long period of time to monitor their lifestyle and exposure to the risks. From this, the incidence of the disease can be followed to look for causal risks. Examples of this are following a sample of the population for fifty years to see if there is a link between smoking and lung cancer. Intervention study involves exposing a random selection of people to a health promotion trial to find out if the if intervention has health benefits and then to compare the results to a group of people who have not. Results can be analysed to establish if there are key variable such as income, age, distribution, etc. Relative or attributable risk provides a measure of the strength of a causal relationship. Decisions can be made from this as to how many lives c ould be saved if the causal factor was removed. Epidemiologists have also to work out which are confounding factors, ones that can appear to be associated with a disease but are not a causal. From all the information and studies undertaken there has to be a systematic review to identify which studies have strong conclusions. From the evidence, reasons can be worked out for showing the causes of health problems and disease and an action plan for health promotion can be set out. Epidemiology is an essential key discipline in health promotion and unless the specific factors that cause a health problem are identified, action cannot be taken to prevent it and promote health. Swine flu and Epidemiology What are the health problems? In the case of swine flu, dry cough, sore throat, headache and fatigue are the most common associated symptoms. Typically patients will have a fever over 38C. Most people recover in a week without any specific treatment. How many are affected In swine flu the number of cases in the UK rose quickly after the first established cases in Scotland. By May 312009, there were 252 confirmed cases in the UK.Seventy of these had been to Mexico or the US seven days prior to infection, and 178 reported that they had not been abroad. Who is affected? In the case of swine flu, in the first months of its outbreak in the UK, it mostly affected young people, and was most commonly spread through contact at schools. These findingsare based on an analysis ofthe first 252 cases of the disease diagnosed in the UK after news of the virus broke What are the trends? Of the 168 who contracted the infection it was established the likely place of viral transmission: 60% had been acquired in school; 25% from a household environment; 8% in the community; 1% (two cases) acquired in the workplace; Less than 1% (one case) in a healthcare environment; 5% acquired elsewhere. (nhs.uk) Which communities are affected and why? People of all genders and ages, including infants and the elderly were developing the disease equally. Due to a larger proportion of younger people travelling abroad and being in contact with younger people, the average age of the first 252 infected people was 20 years. Of the 178 first cases in the UK, 22% reported contact with someone who had developed the infection overseas (secondary infection) and 70% reported contact with a secondary case. 7% were not aware that they had contacted anyone (nhs.uk) Influence on health promotion The disease was first identified in Mexico in April 2009 and quickly spread round the globe. Initially the HNS had to make the public aware of the health problems through the media and do everything to contain the disease such as closing schools. After a while it was classed as a pandemic and moved from a containment status to treatment status. Generally the disease was fairly mild and was usually more serious in patients with other health problems. Part of the health promotion campaign was to offer antiviral medicines, Tamiflu or Relenza. Another step was to identify who and which communities are affected, and those people that are in high risk groups, as they are more likely to develop to complications. Vulnerable people are those who have lung disease, heart disease, kidney disease, liver disease, neurological disease and diabetes. Also at risk are people who have had drug treatment, pregnant women, people over 65 and children under five. A health promotion campaign through the Television and media was used to make these particular groups aware of the potential risks. Swine flu vaccination began in October 2009 The NHS issued information to the public to stop the disease spreading such as good respiratory and hand hygiene i.e. sneezing into a tissue and putting it a bin and to wash your hands and work surfaces at home regularly. Other public health information includes a National Pandemic Flu website and telephone number for the public to call for any information. The public were asked to call their GP if they had flu like symptoms and particularly if they had a serious condition that weakens your immune system, if they are pregnant, have a sick child under one or if the condition suddenly gets worse. The Service assesses the symptoms and if required will provide authorisation to collect antiviral medicine. Carers also have been identified as at risk as they come into contact with the most vulnerable in the community and steps have been taken in the second phase of vaccination to protected them from the risk of infection Conclusion The science of epidemiology involves elements of biology, social sciences and ecology and it is therefore it is a bio-social-environmental science focusing on disease in populations. Epidemiology is a key discipline in Health Promotion as is analyses specific factors of a disease. From this data action can be taken to prevent the disease spreading and promote health i.e. smoking and lung cancer, asbestos and cancer, alcohol and liver disease. However, mistakes can be made as some diseases such as heart disease have many influential factors including diet, exercise, smoking, blood pressure and genetic history. Epidemiology is a population science and investigations of health problems in populations have been very important for public health. Its techniques in examining the disease patterns between populations have been widely applied and there is no consensus of the best means to measure health. As epidemiology is a study of populations it does not tailor health promotion needs for the individual and quite often complicated data and government health warnings such ‘eat five portions of fruit and vegetables a day can be largely ignored by a sceptical public, and therefore destructive activities still persist. This report has identified what epidemiology is and explained how epidemiologists assess the spread of illness and analyse data collected. It has also listed aspects of epidemiology and stated how they have an influence on health promotion. References Cancer Research (2009) [Online], Available at: http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancerstats/types/lung/incidence/index.htm 1 ( (Accessed 22 Nov 2009) Hubley, H. and Copeman, J. (2008) Practical Health Promotion, Polity Press: Cambridge. Naidoo, J. and Wills, J. (2009) Foundations for Health Promotion, 3rd Edn, Bailliere Tindall: London. Naidoo, J. and Wills, J. (2008) Public Health and Health Promotion, 2nd Edn, Bailliere Tindall: London. NHS (2009), [Online], Available at: http://www.nhs.uk/news/2009/07July/Pages/Swinefluearlyepidemiology.aspx 1 (Accessed 2 Dec 2009) NHS (2009), [Online], Available at: http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pandemic-flu/Pages/Introduction.aspx?WT.srch=1 (Accessed 2 Dec 2009)

Preferences for Boys and Girls in South Korea, China, India and Nepal

Preferences for boys and girls in South Korea, China, India and Nepal The studies of gender bias in several developing countries in Asia have received wide attention over the past two decades. Demographers have noted worrying trends in sex ratio at birth in some of the most populous countries in Asia; South Korea, China, India and Nepal are the most markedly countries. One of the measures of agreement that has been recognized in this phenomenon among these four countries is the traditionally-and-culturally-rooted of son preference. Son preference has several features that illustrate the inclination of the male sex in contrast to the female sex resulting numerous differences in preferences of boys and girls in the societies of these four countries. The features of son preference are based on socio-cultural, socio-economic and institutional factors in South Korea, China, India and Nepal, and consequently, have formed an imbalance in the countries’ sex ratios mainly due to female infants mortality. South Korea was one of the first countries to represent the trend of son preference. This is mainly due to Confucian influence that is acutely embedded in the populace, whereby the eldest son of the most recent male ancestor must lead family rituals. The family â€Å"dies† if there were no sons being born (Westley & Choe 2007). Since pre-industrial South Korea, a person’s access to power, social status and economic opportunities depended heavily on their gender, lineage and their position within that lineage. Chung & Gupta (2007) described that a number of the lineages in South Korea had formed into larger super ordinates lineage or in other words can be referred to as â€Å"clan†, where some joint properties are held and utilized to support ancestor worship rituals and to help lineage members in need. Therefore, it was a primary duty to bear sons to ensure the continuity of a family’s lineage. On another note, son preference played a role in terms of a socio-economic view when the South Korean governments had subsequently reinforced the Confucian traditions in a series of authoritarian policies in order to maintain social and political stability. For example, the Family Law stipulated that family headship must be held by men in the line of the eldest son, inheritance should be through male line, women should be transferred to their husband’s family register upon marriage and children are belonged to the father’s lineage even in the case of divorce (Chung & Gupta 2007). {draw:frame} _Figure 1. 0: Trends in sex ratio at birth and total fertility rate, South Korea, 1980-2003 (Westley & Choe 2007). _ In addition, ultrasound equipment was first mass-produced in the country in the mid-1980s. Therefore, the introduction in technologies to determine the sex of unborn fetuses combined with the widespread of abortion availability made it possible for couples that wanted a son to selectively abort female fetuses. In 1990, as seen in Figure 1. 0, the sex ratio indicated that nearly two boys were born at this birth order for every girl (Westley & Choe 2007) resulting in an increase of sex ratio at its highest peak in South Korea. Similarly as South Korea, son preference became visible in China since it is another Confucian-practiced country. The people held beliefs that a person’s empowerment relies on their lineage and the lineage is solely traced through the male. Therefore, failure to produce a son is considered tantamount to extinction of the family line (Almond et. al 2005). Furthermore, the influence of son preference has been historically and traditionally strong in the country where it can be reflected in this ancient Chinese song quoted; â€Å"When a son is born, Let him sleep on the bed, Clothe him with fine clothes, And give him jade to play†¦ When a daughter is born, Let her sleep on the ground, Wrap her in common wrappings, And give broken tiles to play†¦ â€Å"- Book of Songs (1000-700 B. C. ) (Baculinao 2004). {draw:frame} _Figure 2. 0: Sex ratio of population age 0-4 in China, 1953-2005 (Shuzhuo Li 2007)_ In rural areas of China and among the less educated societies, sons are basically preferred because they are needed to carry out farm work, offer financial support to aging parents, continue the family name and receive family inheritance, and also responsible for ancestor worships. Apart from that, as seen in Figure 3. 0, there has been a sharp rise in sex ratio of children age 0-4 since 1982. This is due to China’s government imposing the â€Å"one-child policy† as one of the forces to fast-track economic modernization. The policy’s main condition is that a family, reliant to their will, is allowed to have one child only. Subsequently, a son is more favoured among the societies due to putting Confucian values into practice (Muller n. d). The government had later on enforced the policy strictly over time where by the regulations included mandatory IUD insertion for all women who had one child and abortion for a woman who had an unauthorized pregnancy. Consequently, out of desperation for a boy, some parents may have killed newborn daughters or undergo an abortion (Graham et. al 1998) and thus, mothers suffer tremendous psychological pressure and health risks while undergoing sex-selected abortions, which affect both their physical and reproductive health (Shuzhuo Li 2007). {draw:frame} Figure 3. 0: Sex ratio of the child and overall population, India, 1951-2001 (Guilmoto 2007)_ In India, son preference is influenced by the strong religious Hindu belief in the country to a certain extent where by a family needs a son to perform last rites in order for salvation to be achieved. In other words, sons are considered as breadwinners as they will look after their parents and continue the family name. In addition, Almond et. al (2005) stated that only sons could light a man’s funeral pyre and perform the traditional ancestor cult. Moreover, some Indian societies practice a tradition whereby daughters have to be married off with a substation dowry and hence, daughters are more often considered as a financial burden resulting the killing of female newborn babies as the final solution to the dowry problem. What is more, it is enlarged and even becoming more accepted, particularly in the poorer areas of India (Almond et. al 2005). Since daughters will be married into another family, therefore only sons can guarantee for the care of the parents in old age, which then resulted a far more widespread practice of discrimination against daughters. Hence, in its most extreme manifestation, the influence of son preference in India can affect on how many girls survive into adulthood and even how girls are born (Westley & Choe 2007). As summarize in Figure 3. 0, from earlier years mortality conditions of female infants had increased from killing of the female infants and sex-discrimination regime started to experience a deep change during the 1970s, since pre-natal sex-determination tests became widely available and often led to selective abortion to female fetus (CHREHPA 2007). draw:frame} Figure 4. 0: Trends in sex ratio at birth under 1 year old in Nepal, 1952/54 – 2001 (CHREHPA 2007). Nepal has been classified as having considerable levels of son preference since the World Fertility Surveys first documented the phenomenon in the 1980s. As seen in Figure 4. 0, there was an inclining trend in sex ratio at birth in 1970s to 1980s. Son preference in Nepal is a little different compared to the other countries concerning the discrimination against daughters are at a distinctive level. Daughters are very much loved in the family, as they are valued for their responsibility in religious festivals as well as for their emotional and household contribution to the family. Hindus in Nepal assign great value to marrying a virgin daughter. Girls marry early and universally in Nepal because of the religious merit bestowed on those who give them in marriage (Karki 1988). Nevertheless, having sons are very highly prized among the Nepalese societies compared to daughters (Leone et. al 2003). Sons are preferred due for old age security, and lineage where by the Hindu code of conduct in Nepal reinforced the transfer of family name through male offspring. Other than that, sons are more desired for their roles in religious rituals, agricultural labor and companionship. However, many Nepalese couples are willing to surpass their ideal family sized to satisfy their desire for sons (Hollander 1997). As a consequence, the son preference has affected the contraceptive behavior in Nepal to the extent that Nepalese rarely begin contraception until the desired numbers of sons are born. However, they began to articulate their realization that large families are contributing to shortage of cultivable land and to the deteriorating fuel wood and water supplies in the hills of Nepal (Karki 1988). Hence, methods of pre-natal sex determination came to view during the 1970s, and according to research from CHREHPA (2007), 10 out of 25 women that had been told the fetus was a girl resorted to sex-selective abortions an increase in Nepal’s maternal mortality rates and sex-ratio imbalance as seen in Figure 4. . As a whole, it can be seen that the rationale behind son preference in South Korea, China, India and Nepal are based on these six features; discriminatory inheritance laws, economic value of sons, continuity of family line, family security and strength, socio-cultural norms and customs and dowry system (Gupta et. al 1998). Enhancement of new medical technologies and sex-selective abortions had somehow supported the idea of son preference in these four countries a nd seem to be a method of having the desired son. Next, it is then perceptibly has created several impacts in socioeconomic and demographic manifestation where by it resulted in higher fertility transition, promotes inequality in social and human development, associated with excess female deaths and poor health of women, lowers quality of life for women, wastes a valuable human resource and perpetuates cycle of poverty and increases income inequality in these four countries (Gupta et. al 1998). Fortunately, the imbalance in sex ratio has spurred some official efforts to shift public opinion in these four countries. Approaches have been made to reduce the sex-ratio imbalances in these countries by making daughters more wanted. Governments and non-governmental organizations work through advocacy, sensitization and awareness-raising programs. In South Korea, after a series of extensive campaigns and programs, sex ratios were once greatly imbalanced, are now returning to normal after women gained status in society through employment opportunities, increased education, and parents with enough money to be financially secure without dependence on their sons (Guilmoto n. . ). South Korea now is the first Asian country to reverse back the trend of rising ratio of sex at birth. China on the other hand, participated by the country’s ambitious â€Å"Care For Girls† program. The program encompasses many dimensions of the sex-ratio predicament. It offers cash and other incentives to families with daughters, scholarships for girls, better housing or loans for targeted families and others. It als o includes several awareness-raising campaigns, as well as repressive measures against illegal abortions and infanticide. In India, a program called Tamil Nadu is created in 2004 that gave monetary rewards to couples that had one or two girls and agreed to be sterilized. The state also created a Cradle babies in which empty cradles were placed in government centers across the states for couples to abandon unwanted female child without killing them. Furthermore, in 2007, the New Delhi municipal government sponsored a program that provide every girl born in a government hospital with a gift deposit of 5000 rupees that accumulated interest and could be cashed once the girls reached the age of 18 (Lederer 2008). Nepal has banned sex-selective abortions in 2002 when it liberalized its own law on abortions. These laws were then strengthened later on in various ways, in order to make them more effective (Guilmoto n. d. ). Although the strategies for reducing son preference and getting back female’s rights are many, these are all rather considered as a short-run implication despite the positive and optimistic outcomes. According to an American demographer who has been closely following China's population program stated that, â€Å"The country may be coming o grips with problem as they country is still in dilemma – emotional and policy dilemma – because the solution to the problem will conflict with other parts of their population strategy to reduce birth rate or some of the measures could perhaps make the problem even worse. The country still has a lot of work to do. There’s no road map yet on how to achieve the goal of normal sex ratio† (Baculinao 2004). There fore, the future trends of the son preference are impossible to predict in the long run. Patriarchal systems are still underneath the attitudes among the societies in these countries. Regardless of how many levels of development in lasting efforts to address sex-selective abortion and female infanticide, it will fully require fundamental changes in cultural norms that promote son preference. References Almond, D, Edlund, L & Milligan K (2005) ‘Son preference and the persistence of culture’. Downloaded from http://www. nber. org/papers/w15391 as at 25 November 2009. Baculinao, E (2004) ‘China grapples with legacy of its ‘missing girls’, MSNBC. Downloaded from http://www. msnbc. msn. com/id/5953508 as at 20 November 2009. Chan, A & Yeoh, B. S. A (2002) ‘Gender, Family and Fertility in Asia: An Introdyuction’. Downloaded from http://www. unescap. org/esid/psis/population/journal/Articles/2002/V17N2A1. pdf . As at 25 November 2009. CHREHPA (2007) ‘ Sex Selection: Pervasiveness and Preparedness in Nepal’. Dowloaded from http://www. unfpa. org/gender/docs/studies/nepal. pdf as at 20 November 2009. Chung, W & Gupta, M. D. (2007)’Why is Son Preference Declining in South Korea? : The Role of Development and Public Policy and the Implications for China and India’, Policy Researh Working Paper, No. 373, The World Bank. Eberstadt, N (2004) ‘Power and Population in Asia: Demographics and the strategic balance’. Downloaded from http://www. aei. org/docLib/20040211_PowerandPopulationinAsia. pdf as at 25 November 2009. Edlund, L & Lee, C (2009) ‘Son pereference, sex selection and economic development: Theory and evidence from South Korea’. Downloaded from http://www. e con. columbia. edu/RePEc/pdf/DP0910-04. pdf as at 25 November 2009. Graham, M. J, Larsen, U (1998) ‘Son Preference in Anhui Province, China’, International Family Planning Perspectives, Vol. 24, No. 2.

The Secret Truth on How to Write a Essay about Yourself Exposed

The Secret Truth on How to Write a Essay about Yourself Exposed Life After How to Write a Essay about Yourself It is preferable to find professional writing assistance from the corresponding support. The most frequently encountered paper writing service that the vast majority of our clients require is essay writing. You could also get in touch with your writer to supply some additional recommendations or request information regarding the order's progress. There is equally as much info to avoid though. The Debate Over How to Write a Essay about Yourself You've got a limited word count. In order to comprehend how a personal essay appears like, you should go through few successful samples. Moreover, you wish to stay as true to yourself as possible. People today tend to opt for a variety of themes of who they are and attempt to describe all of them. Most Noticeable How to Write a Essay about Yourself The single most essential part of your essay preparation could possibly be simply making certain you truly understand the question or essay prompt. Don't forget, your private essay might be the truth, but it doesn't indicate you shouldn't consider it from a creative writing mindset. To understand how to write a college essay about yourself you obviously will need to have the ability to conclude it in the best way possible. Be certain to inspect the course out so that you can write the most effective personal essay possible. Determining the sort of essay is the very first step to writing a targeted essay. You need to remember the suitable structure of a typical essay. However you attempt to lessen the amount writing you must do to help your essay, you'll have to master the method for your assignment. If you discover that the writer did not provide precisely what you expected, request a revision, and we'll make the corrections. It is preferable to begin writing as soon as you're assigned the undertaking. The revisions are unquestionably free! Therefore one cannot assume that everybody has the exact same comprehension of a notion. Unfortunately, my story isn't one of a sort. When you analyze your subject, you should inform the reader about its basic concepts and then you are going to want to analyze the issue in a suitable way. You ought to pick the subject of your essay by paying attention to the kind of reader and your major objectives. Excellent preparation enables you to approach the exact same topic from various points of view and go to every one of them. Map out what you're likely to write by producing an outline. Academic papers cannot contain any signals of plagiarism. You find an individual who's struggling as a result of a label. From time to time, an artist makes a self-image of himself. When he creates a self portrait, usually there is a lot of meaning attached to it. A whole lot of others you may have to observe a personal essay. To put it differently, it's possible to always find something to write about that's positive and personal. At best, you're telling the reader something they already know. Some readers will, definitely, concur while some will oppose that's the principal aim of literature newspaper. Put simply, it's a prelude to your conclusion. Keep in mind which every new idea needs to be developed into a distinct paragraph. Your final sentence should uphold your principal idea in a very clear and compelling way. Rework the sentence wit h the suggestions above and you're going to get a stronger piece in general. Get your creative juices flowing by brainstorming all the potential ideas you can imagine to tackle your college essay question. 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It is possible to talk about your past, present and future in a thorough way. Oftentimes, there's absolutely no direct and sure method to at tain our objectives. 1 way of making certain that you're able to communicate clearly and to the point is via accurate and beneficial use of advanced vocabulary.

Personal Narrative Why Optometry - 948 Words

Why Optometry? It’s the question that has been asked ever since I gained in interest for this profession and it is still being asked to this day. I want to become an optometrist simply because I love what this profession has to offer. My desire to pursue optometry stems from my passion to help others and putting others before myself, and becoming an optometrist would allow me to continue to do so while improving the quality of life. After working at an optometry office, volunteering at a clinic, and shadowing multiple doctors, I can’t see myself doing anything else than being an optometrist. I first developed an interest towards optometry due to its intimate interaction between doctor and patient. As a child, there was nothing more I disliked than going to the doctor’s office especially if I thought my eyes were going to get poked and prodded at. But after my first visit to an optometrist, I didn’t mind the doctor getting close to my eyes. The doctor was not only friendly but was reassuring and explained things in a way that I can easily understand. What I thought would be a horrifying examination was made pleasant and tolerable. Although the exam was no longer than half an hour, the experience I had in the exam room sparked my initial interest in pursuing optometry as a professional career. My enthusiasm for optometry further developed as I volunteered at a local optometry office and shadowed under Dr. Michael Tran. Before this, I thought examinations were as simple as

Alzheimers Disease What are we Forgetting Essay

Alzheimers Disease: What are we Forgetting? Alzheimers disease (pronounced Alz-hi-merz) is a progressive, degenerative disease that affects the brain and results in impaired memory, thinking and behavior. It was first described by Dr. Alois Alzheimer in 1906 and has been diagnosed in millions of people to this day (1). This disease results, ultimately, in the destruction of the brain and brings new meaning and insights into just how much brain may equal behavior. Alzheimers is a degenerative disease that usually begins gradually, causing a person to have memory lapses in both basic knowledge and simple tasks (7). Alzheimers disease causes the formation of abnormal structures in the brain called plaques and tangles†¦show more content†¦Age and family history, as with many other illnesses, have been identified as potential risk factors. One sight boasted that most families, however, do not have several immediate members who wind up with the disease unless it is the type of early onset Alzheimers (ten percent of cases). However, another stated that there is a clear familial link (6). Most Alzheimers patients develop the symptoms late in life (after the age of sixty-five) (1) (6). Various studies have improved our understanding of plaques and tangles in the brains of individuals with Alzheimers disease. A previously unknown lesion characteristic of Alzheimers disease may provide clues as to its origin. This lesion, called an AMY plaque, may play a role in the onset and progression of Alzheimers disease. Other areas of research include looking into the genetic factors related to the onset of the disease (4), the Ab protein and senile plaques (4), tau protein and neurofibrillary tangles (3), the role of estrogen in the brain, neurotransmitter deficiencies and dysfunction in brain cell communication, inflammation and its effect on brain cell activity, and oxidative stress and its effect on brain cell processes. Further research has proven fruitful and progress is being made continually which is helping to generate more accurate diagnostic tools and better treatment options for affectedShow MoreRelatedAlzheimer s And The Most Relevant Cause Of Dementia1496 Words   |  6 Pages Alzheimer’s, the most relevant cause of Dementia, is a disease that affects as many as 4.5 million Americans per year (WebMD 2005-2014). Alzheimer’s is a disease that is an irremediable, continuous brain neuron degenerative diseas e that can be asymptomatic at first and then overtime becomes symptomatic. 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How to Make Essay about Yourself Ideas

How to Make Essay about Yourself Ideas Any excellent research paper requires considerably more time than a normal essay or lab report. Ending an essay with similar scenario might help to demonstrate your point and make a better understanding. My professor was very happy and I managed to prevent the late submission penalty. The Ugly Side of How to Make Essay about Yourself Now essay writing service has gotten very typical on earth. Before you sit down to compose any essay, it's necessary for you to conduct a comprehensive research. Research effectively Great essays begin with wonderful research. Clearly, writing an essay on this issue of marijuana is too general. Instead, write an intriguing essay, write an essay you believe is fascinating. Let another person read your essay. You can also write a fantastic personal essay without sounding subjective. If you're requested to compose an essay about the established text you're working on, it can be tough to produce something original. If your essay is describing a process, like how to make a huge chocolate cake, make sure your paragraphs fall in the right purchase. You might have your topic assigned, or perhaps you be given free reign to write on the topic of your pick. Though the conclusion paragraph comes at the conclusion of your essay it shouldn't be considered an afterthought. For instance, in the same way the opening sentence or paragraph of a novel is extremely critical in capturing the interest of the reader early on, so the very first paragraph of your essay is crucial in earning your reader want to keep on reading it. While writing there are a few things you can do in order to m ake your article longer. Build self-confidence by backing up and starting wherever your youngster can get the job done successfully before diving in their very first daunting essay. Having read the identical literature or scholarship, everyone tends to wind up writing much the identical thing which must become rather boring for the man marking it! What's more, instead of aping the written style of whichever author or scholar you chance to be reading at the moment, make certain you write in your voice. Class-driven writing exercises are lots of fun, and can be quite inspiring. Essays are generally not very long, therefore it's not surprising that teachers would assign a great deal of them to write. The 5-Minute Rule for How to Make Essay about Yourself Some students' writing might not be on-par with the grade level they're in. Nonetheless, most kids dread the idea of writing, especially in regards to tedious writing assignments in school. Students with ADHD frequently have difficulties with writing, especially with respect to spelling. Analyze your topic and be certain you're completely clear regarding the writing requirements. There isn't any more need to experience a great deal of hassle in regards to completing homework assignments of any kind. There are lots of writing apps and tools available to inspect spelling and grammar. There are a lot of essential things which make essay writing homework such a daunting job to finish. Up in Arms About How to Make Essay about Yourself? You might also realize that a few pieces of your essay will ask you to add more details. Now you understand that an honest and qualitative on-line essay writing service can offer great assistance for your learning, it's time to put your purchase. Be prepared Add your essay deadline to the calendar, but in addition block out the particular spans of time which you will use to investigate and write it. Additionally, an exhaustive research can help you make certain that all the info in your essay is both relevant and current. The Bene fits of How to Make Essay about Yourself Students commonly mistake a conclusion paragraph for a summary paragraph when, in truth, it's really a chance to drive home your argument. They should know plagiarism is a very serious violation. Importantly, the essay brings out a distinctive attribute of the writer for a team player with superior leadership abilities. When you get your purchase, you grow to be a portion of our team. A substantial number of students get assistance from professional writers. Explain your students, that it's always better for them to decide on a topic they understand well and have a chance to earn a research on. How to Make Essay about Yourself - the Conspiracy Every other skill they learn has a perfect answer and a correct means to do it. Also, you're going to need a transition word to produce readers understand you're going to conclude. Make your very first order at the moment and find the help you need whenever possible. There are plenty of stra tegies to write with different folks.

Critical and response perspective free essay sample

In this lesson, I focused on Jace, the second grader. I was able to hold a small group lesson in her classroom so that I could be able to assess her literacy ability first hand when it comes to critical and response perspectives. I learned of the idea of a tea party from Tompkins and decided I wanted to create a lesson that would involve this great activity (Tompkins, p. 272). The intent of the tea party was to use the critical perspective as well as the response perspective (Laureate Education, 2010). In this lesson the learners will be able to better understand the text and it should play a role in the learners’ lives in a meaningful way. The use of metacognitive strategies helps the students to think about â€Å"thinking† all through the reading process. This lesson demonstrates ways to implement the these perspective (Laureate Education, 2010). Teacher: Date: February 11, 2014 Age/Grade Range; Developmental Level(s): 7-8 yr / 2nd / early reader Anticipated Lesson Duration: 25 minutes Lesson Foundations Pre-assessment (including cognitive and noncognitive measures): I used previous assessments of the three students to select the text that would gain their interest the most. We will write a custom essay sample on Critical and response perspective or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The assessment in which I used to gage my lesson was the DRA (Developmental Reading Assessment) which is a formal assessment that helps to determine independent reading levels (Tompkins, 2010). I also performed another assessment on the students recently that I used help to determine interest in reading. This assessment was called the Elementary Reading Attitude Survey (McKenna, 1990). Curricular Focus, Theme, or Subject Area: Reading/ Language Arts State/District Standards: †¢The learner will read and understand a variety of materials. †¢The learner will comprehend and use comprehension skills such as applying knowledge of foreshadowing, comparing and contrasting, determining the main idea, indentifying the author’s purpose, inferring, previewing, predicting, re-reading, and self-monitoring. Learning Objectives: The students will participate in the tea party activity through discussion and understanding of authors’ purpose while activating prior knowledge to comprehend text. The students will write an entry in their journal near end of lesson. Adaptations for ELLs, Students with Special Needs, and/or Struggling Readers: Guided practice and help, modeling, and slower paced one on one practice will be conducted for struggling students if needed. During journal writing, students can draw instead of write and I will dictate the illustration for them. Perspective(s) addressed in this lesson (Interactive, Critical, and/or Response): Critical and Response Perspectives Texts: Amazing Grace (Hoffman, M. 1991) Other Materials/Technology/Equipment/Resources: pencil, crayons, and journal notebook, book, and note cards with excerpts from the story written on them dry-erase marker, and 2 small white boards to use to write before story and after story predictions and author’s purpose. Grouping structures (one-on-one, small group, whole class): Small group Lesson Sequence Learning ActivitiesAssessment Opportunities Introduction/Anticipatory Set †¢The teacher will (TTW) hold up a book titled Amazing Grace and ask the students to raise their hand to tell what they think the story is about. †¢TTW allow for a few students to give answers and ask other questions that assist the students to use prior knowledge. †¢In order to help the students visualize what they already know or what they think they know about the book, the teacher will write notes on a small white board, using pictures as well where applicable. †¢TTW then tell them that today we are going to learn about the author’s purpose and try to understand why the author wrote those words and what he or she wants us to know and learn. †¢The learner will (TLW) be asked to predict the author’s purpose just by looking at the cover and the first few pages. †¢Allow for a few students to answer. †¢Observe to see if how much prior knowledge Jace has, if any. †¢TTW make notes on the white board labeled â€Å"before† of what predictions each student makes regarding what the story is about. Building/Applying Knowledge and Skills †¢After listing the predictions, TLW listen to TT read the story entirely. †¢After the story is completed read, TTW pause for a moment for the story to sink in and the students to gather their thoughts. †¢TTW as TL what they thought the story was about and what the author’s purpose was. †¢TLW will be allowed to answer. TTW write down a few of the answers on another small white board labeled â€Å"After†. †¢TTW show the stack of index cards to the students and explain that the students will select a card and read it a few times or until it is read fluently then move around to another student in the group and read the excerpt to that student and discuss what it is about and how it connects to them in real life. †¢TTW then instruct TL that this activity is called a tea party. †¢TTW model reading an index card to another student and talk about a personal connection to the story with that student. †¢Allow for TL to ask any questions about the activity and TTW answer any of those questions for the whole group. †¢TTW prompt the learners to begin. †¢TTW observe TL to see if the predictions that are being made are accurate based on the text and pictures in the story. †¢TTW assess the accuracy of the predictions made to the discussion after the reading of the text. Was the use of prior knowledge helpful? †¢TTW assist students with reading fluency and understanding when needed †¢TTW observe each pair of students to see if they are talking about their personal connections. Synthesis/Closure †¢The students will come back together in their small group after discussing the excerpts and connections with the text. †¢TTW have the students to get their journals out to write about their experience with the tea party. †¢TLW also write a sentence what they feel was the authors’ purpose of the story was. †¢TTW observe the students as they write in their journals. †¢TTW assist any student that needs help with writing and will dictate if necessary. †¢TTW collect journal entries and assess whether or not each student understood the purpose of the tea party as well as the author’s purpose. Extension/Enrichment/Transfer of Generalization of Knowledge: -TL could take the note cards home to share with family members. I could also assign the learners to go home with the cards and retell the story to a family member. -The main idea of this story should follow them after this lesson is over. Believe in yourself, no matter what challenges you face. The learners will want to access their prior knowledge whenever an issue arises similar to the one in the story. -Also the reading strategies that are used in this lesson will benefit the learners in school during reading of any topic as well as the rest of their lives. Reflection Tompkins says that strategies are cognitive when they involve thinking and are metacognitive when students reflect on their thinking (Tompkins, 2010). During the small group, the students were thinking cognitively while listening to the text being read to them but after the story the students were thinking metacognitively when asked to enter a journal entry retelling the story. At the beginning of the lesson, I asked the students if they could tell what the story was going to be about by just looking at the cover. The students used their prior knowledge and visual cues to come up with answers. This strategy allowed the students to contribute their knowledge of the subject and to get involved in the text, but also was an important part of comprehension skills. One student said that the book was going to be about a church song, and another student said it was about a girl who lost a tooth. I found this attention grabber to be very useful to Jace, as she is a struggling reader. I did notice that she was very interested in the story even before I began to read the text. The use of retrieving prior knowledge allows students to think about what they already know and helps to comprehend new information easier and understand the text better. I explained to them that authors sometimes have a reason for writing particular stories. Our webcast this week stated how it is important for students to know the authors purpose because it brings more understanding to the text (Laureate Education, 2010). I then began to read the story without stopping. During the lesson, everyone in our small group seemed very engaged. After completely reading the story, I paused for a moment appearing to be thinking , then I asked the students, â€Å"What was the authors reason for writing that story? † I also asked, â€Å"How did the story make you feel? † I wrote down their responses on a small dry erase boards. After discussion of the questions, I introduced our activity. I told the students that we were going to have a tea party. The students read or re-read excerpts from the story that I had copied onto index cards previously. They then had to discuss with each other what they had read and what the author was trying to tell (Tompkins, 2010). The tea party was a big success. I listened as the students talked about how the main character in the story felt. The students also discussed a few times when they felt like they were getting picked on and how it made them feel. After about seven to eight minutes of discussion among the students, I called the group back together and had them to get out their journals to write something about the story that they liked and also to write a sentence telling why the author wrote the story. The students then turned in their journal so that I could read all the responses. The lesson went very well. I really did not think that the lesson would go as well as it did. All on the students in the small group did a great job. Jace was very engaged throughout the entire lesson. Since some of the writing was a little difficult I thought it I would have to dictate or scribe for a few of the students especially Jace but I was wrong and did not have to assist any of the students during their journal writing activity. During the observation of the students as they were having their tea party, I wrote down so of the statements that were said so that I could go back and refer to the notes when I introduced this to the other small groups and when I was grading their journal entries. I also joined in with a few of the students’ discussions and by doing that it really brought the lesson home to the students. I let the students understand that I have emotions too and what the story was trying to tell me. I feel that they enjoyed me joining their conversations and I felt that they were able to open up and connect with the story on a higher comprehension level.. Looking back on this lesson, I feel like the students were actively involved in their learning. When active learning is taking place the learner must assume responsibility for the learning experience (Pang, 2010). Research suggests that students must have an understanding of the metacognitive and reflective practices they are utilizing for authentic learning to be successful (Pang, 2010) I feel that the students learned quite a bit from this lesson by connecting with their metacognitive level of learning. The students activated their prior knowledge before and during the lesson as well. The story was truly broken down and the main focus was learned. I feel that my learning objectives were achieved based on the data that was collected. I feel that I would change two things when hosting a tea party again. The first would be to have the whole class participating in the activity instead of a small group of students. The other that I would do differently would be to include more picture cues for my lower leveled students and any ELL that I might have. These students might have a harder time reading each small section of the text. I had to read the text to Jace and one other student a few extra times before she was able to read it fluently on her own. According to cognitive developmental theories, Cognitive development includes intellectual maturity and metacognitive superiority (Pang, 2010). My small group of students that I wrote the lesson for had to critically think about the author’s purpose and how to respond in a personally. Performing this lesson helped me to better understand, if taught correctly, that second graders can think critically without much guidance. I felt proud of my students for their abilities they showed when reading the text and responding to the emotions of the text in a meaningful way. When administering this same lesson to Case and Grace in pre-kindergarten and kindergarten, I would provide more guidance and support before and during the tea party. I would also allow them to draw and try to write the authors purpose in their journals.